Nicholas Copernicus (Mikolaj Kopernik) was born in what is now Poland on February 19, 1473. While attending the University of Bologna, he lived and worked with astronomy professor Domenico Maria de … He became a mathematician, an astronomer, a church jurist with a doctorate in law, a physician, a translator, an artist, a Catholic cleric, a governor, a diplomat, and an economist. Nicolaus Copernicus: A Renaissance man and his contribution to the development of modern science The man who ‘stopped the sun, moved the earth’ was not only an astronomer, but also an economist, lawyer, translator, doctor, mathematician and cartographer. Nicolaus Copernicus was born in the city of Torun, in the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, northern Poland on February 19, 1473. He continued his studies at the University of Bologna and studied medicine at the University of Padua. For Copernicus, his heliocentric theory was by no mean… The leading calendar reformer was Paul of Middelburg, bishop of Fossombrone. Heliocentric Model:Copernicus studied Greek and Arab scholars’ books. The translation movement causes the order in which the celestial spheres are arranged to be the following: The supreme and immovable sphere is the Sun, which contains all things situated in the universe. Nicolaus Copernicus is important today because he created the theory that changed history. Question: List The Contributions To Modern Astronomy Of Nicolaus Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, And Sir Isaac Newton. He translated into Latin the letters of the seventh-century Byzantine philosopher Theophilus of Simocatta, printed in 1509, This is your only previous publication to De revolutionibus orbium coelestium . He received a doctorate in canon law from the University of Ferrara, but he did not study there. His contributions came up with a great impact on the astronomical history. It is important to note that Copernicus' acquisition of a good reading level was critical for his studies in astronomy, since most of the works of Greek astronomers, including Ptolemy, had not yet been translated into Latin, the Which were written. (See Researcher’s Note for information about Copernicus’s nationality.). The youngest of four children, Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 in Torun, Poland. Nicolaus Copernicus was born in the city of Torun, Poland on February 19, 1473. Copernicus, Nicolas (1473–1543) Nicolas Copernicus, or Mikolaj Kopernick, was a Polish clergyman, physician, and astronomer, and the propounder of a heliocentric theory of the universe. This … Polish astronomer and mathematician who, as a student, studied canon law, mathematics, and medicine at Cracow, Bologna, Rome, Padua, and Ferrara. Corrections? Throughout this piece I will be informing you about Copernicus’ life, career, contributions, and what life would be like without his discoveries. The Earliest Biography of Nicolaus Copernicus, dated 1586 by Bernardo Baldi. Nicolaus Copernicus Biography Facts and Pictures. Nicolaus … Nicolaus Copernicus (Image credit: Public Domain). By the time he published this observation in 1543, he had made it the basis of a theoretical claim: that it confirmed exactly the size of the apparent lunar diameter. He grew up in a wealthy family in the city of Torun. Nicholas Copernicus provided fundamental knowledge about the relationship between mathematics and the natural world. After his father's death, he was raised by his mother's brother, a bishop in the Catholic Church. He was the first modern European scientist to propose that Earth and other planets revolve around the sun, or the Heliocentric Theory of the universe. 16). Nicolaus was the youngest of four children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106 (30), 12279-12282. At that time it was believed that there was ten times more water than land. Author of. When his father died, Copernicus was 10 years old and his uncle Lucas Watzenrode, Bishop of Warmia, took over the education of his nephew. As a church canon, Nicolaus Copernicus worked for a bishopric in Poland collecting rents; securing military defenses; overseeing chapter finances; managing a bakery, brewery, and mills; and caring for the medical needs of the other canons. In May 1503 Copernicus finally received a doctorate—like his uncle, in canon law—but from an Italian university where he had not studied: the University of Ferrara. His name at birth was Mikolaj Kopernik. After his father’s death, sometime between 1483 and 1485, his mother’s brother Lucas Watzenrode (1447–1512) took his nephew under his protection. You may also like The contributions of Kepler . This decision allowed him to continue his studies, as a member of the church, he had access to the most prestigious universities in Italy: Bologna, Padua and Ferrara, where he studied astronomy, medicine and canon law, respectively. Copernicus created the mathematical theory to prove that the Sun, not the Earth, was the centre of our solar system. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. Copernicus probably hit upon his main idea sometime between 1508 and 1514, and during those years he wrote a manuscript usually called the Commentariolus (“Little Commentary”). Nicolaus Copernicus was born into a wealthy family. Those positions were Chancellor, Guardian of the table, and ''Visitor'' of the Warmian chapter. Up to this point, Ptolemy's model had been followed, which proposed that the earth was the center of the universe ( Geocentrism ). Circa 1508, Nicolaus Copernicus developed his own celestial model of a heliocentric planetary system. His revolutionary ideas in the field of astronomy were embodied in his work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the revolutions of the celestial spheres ) Written in 1530, but decided not to publish it until a few months before his death, which occurred in May 1543. He explained this before the term"inflation"was invented. This latter movement is what modern eyes may seem strange. Copernicus’s theory had important consequences for later thinkers of the scientific revolution, including such major figures as Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, and Newton. He was the son of a wealthy merchant. Kuhn, T. S. (1957). Nicolaus Copernicus was born into a wealthy family. Copernicus's analysis showed that it is impossible to have two types of currency in one government, one more valuable to foreign trade, and another less valuable to local transactions (as Sigismund suggested). Copernicus’s reputation outside local Polish circles as an astronomer of considerable ability is evident from the fact that in 1514 he was invited to offer his opinion at the church’s Fifth Lateran Council on the critical problem of the reform of the calendar. His uncle, the bishop and ruler of Ermland, was the person to whom Copernicus owed his education, career, and security. From invention of science: a new history of the scientific revolution. Well, you're not. Polish astronomer and mathematician who, as a student, studied canon law, mathematics, and medicine at Cracow, Bologna, Rome, Padua, and Ferrara. However, through geometry, Copernicus demonstrated that, since the earth is a sphere, necessarily the center of gravity and the center of its mass are coincident and, at the same time, he came to the conclusion that the quantity of water does not May be greater than that of earth, because the heavy matter is conglomerated around the center of gravity and light on the outside. Nicolaus Copernicus studied liberal arts—including astronomy and astrology—at the University of Cracow (Kraków). Moreover, it is noteworthy that this knowledge of Greek allowed him to reinterpret Aristotle . Nicolaus Copernicus is not famous for his contributions to reproductive science, but rather for his contributions to ASTRONOMY. In very simple terms, for Copernicus one should avoid putting too much money into circulation, because the supply of money determines the value of the coin, the more money the value of the coin is reduced. The astronomer proposed that the amount of water has to be less than the land. When he was 10 years old, his father died. In scientific field, Nicolaus Copernicus is recognized as the father of modern astronomy, as he presented a method that reasonably describes the planets and their trajectories in the solar system. Polish name: Mikolaj Kopernik. We use cookies to provide our online service. “Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)” Analyze and summarize the individual’s major contributions to scientific or philosophical thought. At university he started calling himself the Latin form of his name, Nicolaus Copernicus. F Hoyle, Nicolaus Copernicus: An Essay on His Life and Work (1973). His theory was that the sun is in the middle of the solar system, and the planets go around it. He put the earth in thecenter of the universe and contended that these elements were belowthe moon, which was the closest celestial body. Nicolaus Copernicus was born in 1473 in a small town, Torun, which is just northwest of Warsaw, Poland. Polish name: Mikolaj Kopernik. 1. Nicolaus Copernicus was born in Thorn, Poland on February 19, 1473. Around 1514, he shared his findings in the Commentariolus. As it has been seen, with his model of the universe, Nicholas Copernicus revolutionized the way of seeing the sky. The city, on the Vistula River, had been an important inland port in the Hanseatic League. Sometime between 1508 and 1514, Nicolaus Copernicus wrote a short astronomical treatise commonly called the Commentariolus,or “Little Commentary,” which laid the basis for his heliocentric (sun-centered) system. Taken from the book that started the Scientific Revolution – De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium. The work was published in Cracow in 1509 and dedicated to his uncle. Nicolaus was born into a wealthy family. His main idea was that our world is heliocentric (helios = sun). Nicolaus Copernicus contributed the heliocentric model to the Scientific Revolution. Nicolaus Copernicus's greatest contribution to the Renaissance—and the world itself—is undoubtedly the heliocentric model of the solar system. Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer known as the father of modern astronomy. Copernicus Nicolaus Copernicus was a renaissance mathematician and astronomer. After his father's death, he was raised by his mother's brother, a bishop in the Catholic Church. He spoke German, Polish, and Latin, and understood Greek and Italian. This contribution of Copernicus to science is perhaps the most revolutionary in the history of mankind, A paradigm shift for the sciences. He spoke German, Polish, and Latin, and understood Greek and Italian. When Copernicus was 10 years of age, his father passed away. Copernicus's response to this was one of his great contributions to the world of science: All matter has gravity, and the heavy matter will attract and be attracted by similarly heavy matter, just as the smaller matter will be attracted to the larger matter. Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473 in the city of Thorn (modern Toruń), in the province of Royal Prussia, in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. At the time, all the texts he wrote were included in the His father was a merchant from Kraków and his mother was the daughter of a wealthy Toruń merchant. Copernicus later painted a self-portrait; it is likely that he acquired the necessary artistic skills while in Padua, since there was a flourishing community of painters there and in nearby Venice. L Prowe, Nicolaus Copernicus (Osnabrück, 1967). Learn more about the achievements of this great scientist who laid the foundation of modern astronomy. Copernicus studied mathematics and astronomy at the University of Krakow. Nicolaus copernicus. J Dobrzycki and M Biskup, Nicolaus Copernicus : Gelehrter und Staatsbürger (Leipzig, 1983). Nicolaus uncle then, became his guardian. This order indicates that one planet surpasses another in the speed of translation according to the size of the circles. Ever feel like you are the center of the universe? He started his study of science and mathematics at the University of Cracow, which was a well-respected scientific center. The influence of this discovery was so profound that the new wave of astronomy that followed has been termed … These churchmen-scientists include Nicolaus Copernicus, Gregor Mendel, Georges Lemaître, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Pierre Gassendi, Roger Joseph Boscovich, Marin Mersenne, Bernard Bolzano, Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Nicole Oresme, Jean Buridan, Robert Grosseteste, … In the treatise, he correctly postulated the order of the known planets, including Earth, from the sun, and estimated their orbital periods relatively accurately. People know Copernicus for his ideas about the sun and the earth.His main idea was that our world is heliocentric (helios = sun). In the 1500s, when most believed Earth was the center of the universe, Nicolas Copernicus proposed his theory that the planets revolved around the sun. Not to mention the influence that his research has had on the most renowned scientists to date. Copernicus helped in the revision of the Julian calendar, which was the official calendar since the fourth century. Nicolaus Copernicus was an astronomer who proposed a heliocentric system, that the planets orbit around the Sun; that Earth is a planet which, besides orbiting the Sun annually, also turns once daily on its own axis; and that very slow changes in the direction of this axis account for the precession of the equinoxes. Classical astronomy followed principles established byAristotle. Updates? Nicolaus Copernicus – Mikołaj Kopernik! The first provided a summary of the foundations of Ptolemy’s astronomy, with Regiomontanus’s corrections and critical expansions of certain important planetary models that might have been suggestive to Copernicus of directions leading to the heliocentric hypothesis. (Despite serving as a canon, Copernicus did not become a priest.) Pope Leo X asked the astronomer to participate in the reform that took place between 1513 and 1516. Astronomy - Astronomy - Copernicus: Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus announced the motion of Earth in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri VI (“Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs,” 1543). Bogdanowicz, W., Allen, M., Branicki, W., Lembring, M., Gajewska, M., & Kupiec, T. (2009). J L E Dreyer, A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (1953). Born on February 19th 1473 in Torun, Poland. Copernicus also introduced the notion that man is an autonomous being ruled by reason, and because it takes part in the ordering of the universe. The contributions of Nicolas Copernicus to astronomy were huge. In this work can be found much of the contributions of Copernicus in physics and astronomy, although the impact of this character is not limited to these fields of knowledge. In 1494, his uncle Lucas, who was the bishop of Warmia, helped him secure the position of a canon, an administrative appointment in the Church. Copernicus actually assumed the responsibility of positions of power in the Polish government. Nicholas Copernicus was based on his heliocentric model of the universe to solve the problems presented by the previous calendar, but it was not until the year 1582 that all the changes came into effect in the Gregorian calendar. Up to this point, Ptolemy's model had been followed, which proposed that the earth was the center of the universe ( Geocentrism ). Not long after, his mother dies. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). He grew up under his uncle's care who wanted Nicolaus to become a … 1). He was born in Toruń and studied in Krakow during the Renaissance era. Copernicus also shows the … F. (2016). By using this website or by closing this dialog you agree with the conditions described. He discovered the theory of Heliocentric that the planets revolved around the sun. mother, was from family of merchants. (Although he did work as … Nicholaus Copernicus(1473-1543) was a Polish mathematician and astronomer who developed a theory for the universe that placed the Sun at the center, rather than the Earth. Firstly, Nicolaus Copernicus was born in Torun, Poland on February 19, 1473. His father was a banker and merchant. Nicolaus Copernicus, the famous mathematician and astronomer was the first to discover that the earth revolves around the sun and not the other way round. An astronomer and mathematician, Nicolaus Copernicus is a shining star of the Renaissance. He started his study of science and mathematics at the University of Cracow, which was a well-respected scientific center. Some historians of science seem to ignore the fundamental role of mathematics, and it is often said that the philosophical and scientific thought of the sixteenth century is based on heliocentrism as if it were not a natural consequence. He sent it to the University of Krakow in 1491 and, having finished his studies, took the vows as canon of the cathedral of Frombork. Copernicus studied mathematics and astronomy at the University of Krakow. Copernicus held the position throughout his life and it helped him fund his studies and research. Copernicus, as is known from Rheticus, was “assistant and witness” to some of Novara’s observations, and his involvement with the production of the annual forecasts means that he was intimately familiar with the practice of astrology. He father was a copper trader and his. At this time medicine was closely allied with astrology, as the stars were thought to influence the body’s dispositions. Nicolaus Copernicus was born in the city of Torun, Poland on February 19, 1473. Briefly Summarize Kepler’s Three Laws. Biographical Information Copernicus was born into a well-to-do family in 1473. Nicolaus Copernicus was born in Thorn, Poland on February 19, 1473. His father was a merchant known as ‘Nicolaus the elder’ and his mother was known as Barbara. The fundamental change that was generated at the social level was that both his astronomical advances as the mathematicians led to the scientific revolution that would end up separating the church from the academy during the modern era. Copernicus’s astronomical work took place in his spare time, apart from these other obligations. Journal of the History of Ideas, 113-118. Whether Copernicus ever offered any views on how to reform the calendar is not known; in any event, he never attended any of the council’s sessions. It also went against the theory that a Greek… Copernicus is adopted by his Uncle Lucas Watzenrode, a clergyman. His uncle, the bishop and ruler of Ermland, was the person to whom Copernicus owed his education, career, and security. He father was a copper trader and his. It primarily focuses on his contributions to astronomy and why society believed his theories were incorrect. 580-584. Nicolaus Copernicus was not only an astronomy genius. Copernicus and mechanics. This is a list of Catholic clergy throughout history who have made contributions to science. In 1501 he stayed briefly in Frauenburg but soon returned to Italy to continue his studies, this time at the University of Padua, where he pursued medical studies between 1501 and 1503. The person responsible for moving the earth and stopping the sun was Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish mathematician and astronomer. Nicolaus Copernicus made an excellent discovery about our solar system and was an amazing astronomer. The Moon revolves around the center of the Earth, and moves with the Earth, as an epicycle. Nicolaus Copernicus Facts Accomplishments Theory Britannicacom. icolaus Copernicus' contribution to the astronomical history was large and it was a huge impact as well. Thus, Copernicus’s astrological experience at Bologna was better training for medicine than one might imagine today. Among Pico’s criticisms was the charge that, because astronomers disagreed about the order of the planets, astrologers could not be certain about the strengths of the powers issuing from the planets. After the great research, he knew that the sun was the center of the universe, not the earth. He belonged to a family of merchants. The work was not published in his lifetime. From the heliocentrismo came a radical change in the way of understanding the universe and gave rise to the so-called"Scientific Revolution,"whose implications have been fundamental to understand the modern world. Ring in the new year with a Britannica Membership. His major contribution to science is his heliocentric theory, which asserts that the sun is … Nicolaus Copernicus (Polish: Mikołaj Kopernik; German: Nikolaus Kopernikus) was a Polish Renaissance mathematician and astronomer, of a Prussian descent, who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe. Knox, D. (2005). He was born in Toruń and studied in Krakow during the Renaissance era. He used the knowledge of Greek that he had acquired during his Italian studies to prepare a Latin translation of the aphorisms of an obscure 7th-century Byzantine historian and poet, Theophylactus Simocattes. The youngest child born to Nicolaus Copernicus Sr. and Barbara Watzenrode. He then formulated the"quantity theory of money"which stipulates that prices vary proportionately with the supply of money in society. His model of the universe implied that Earth possesses three movements: rotation, translation and a conical oscillation motion of its own axis. Copernicus proposed a model of a spherical universe, in which both the Earth and the planets and stars revolved around the Sun. 1.What is the contribution of Copernicus in the philosophy of science? Rothbard, M. N. (2006). Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Technically Copernicus was of German descent, so his mother tongue was German, although the circumstances of his life indicate that he also spoke Polish. This was because the Catholic teachings were based on the theory that the Universe was Earth centered. Nicolaus Copernicus portrait from Town Hall in Toruń, 1580 (public domain) He was a real polymath, and, apart from observing the sky, Copernicus was active in other areas too. When Copernicus is ten, his father dies. Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish Mikołaj Kopernik, German Nikolaus Kopernikus, (born February 19, 1473, Toruń, Royal Prussia, Poland—died May 24, 1543, Frauenburg, East Prussia [now Frombork, Poland]), Polish astronomer who proposed that the planets have the Sun as the fixed point to which their motions are to be referred; that Earth is a planet which, besides orbiting the Sun annually, also turns once daily on its own axis; and that very slow long-term changes in the direction of this axis account for the precession of the equinoxes. The most recognized and revolutionary contribution of Nicholas Copernicus is undoubtedly the theory of heliocentrism. It was during the last years of Watzenrode’s life that Copernicus evidently came up with the idea on which his subsequent fame was to rest. The person responsible for moving the earth and stopping the sun was Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish mathematician and astronomer. Between 1491 and about 1494 Copernicus studied liberal arts—including astronomy and astrology—at the University of Cracow (Kraków). Nicolaus Copernicus Contributions to Astronomy Space Astronomy. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. In 1483, when Copernicus was only 10 years old, his father passed away. The rise of the Greek Renaissance came to Copernicus early, and in Bologna he began to learn it in 1492. Nicolaus was born into a wealthy family. Ludwig von Mises Institute. Only 27 recorded observations are known for Copernicus’s entire life (he undoubtedly made more than that), most of them concerning eclipses, alignments, and conjunctions of planets and stars. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543) was a Polish astronomer who is most famous for his contribution in establishing the heliocentric nature of the Solar System. Copernicus became interested in astronomy and published an early description of his "heliocentric" model of the solar system in Commentariolus (1512). Aristotle accepted the idea that there were four physicalelements – earth, water, air, and fire. (1973). Like many students of his time, however, he left before completing his degree, resuming his studies in Italy at the University of Bologna, where his uncle had obtained a doctorate in canon law in 1473. Prior to the publication of his major astronomical work, … Harvard University Press. It is in this way that Copernicus contributed to establishing the precision of the time that passes on Earth. This contribution of Copernicus to science is perhaps the most revolutionary in the history of ma… Copernicus’s actual duties at the bishopric palace, however, were largely administrative and medical. (An early sketch of his heliocentric theory, the Commentariolus, had circulated in manuscript in the small astronomical community of central … In this way, the small things that are on the earth, are attracted to the earth. Many argue that Copernicus's ideas not only were the origin of modern astronomy but also signaled the start of a scientific revolution. According to a later horoscope, Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473, in Toruń, a city in north-central Poland on the Vistula River south of the major Baltic seaport of Gdańsk. Novara had the responsibility of issuing annual astrological prognostications for the city, forecasts that included all social groups but gave special attention to the fate of the Italian princes and their enemies. People know Copernicus for his ideas about the sun and the earth. Nicolaus Copernicus was born in Turan (a city), Poland on 19 th February 1473. In the next orbit moves on the Earth, then Venus and finally Mercury. However, it can not be ignored that heliocentrism, besides solving an astronomical problem, was solved with a mathematical technique. Copernicus became interested in monetary matters when King Sigismund I of Poland asked him to make a proposal to reform the currency of his community. Genetic identification of putative remains of the famous astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. The Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution The Age of Growth Physics 139. Nicolaus Copernicus’ contributions. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 68, 157-211. There were sevenplanets, or wandering stars, because they had a course through thezodiac in addition to traveling around the earth: the moon, Mercury,Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter. Nicolaus Copernicus . It was then explained that the earth's rotation (as a disk) was due to the fact that the center of gravity and center of magnitude did not coincide and were two forces that sought balance and this generated movement. Galilei provided the calculations and observations to prove Copernicus' theory. His work. The Contributions by Nicolás Copernicus , one of the Most important scientists in history , Span many fields of knowledge, although most studies of the character commonly revolve only around heliocentric theory. Thus Saturn takes about thirty years to complete a cycle; Jupiter, twelve years old; Mars, two and a half years, and Earth, one year; Venus, nine months and Mercury, three. In the farthest orbit is Saturn, then comes Jupiter and Mars is nearer. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543) was a Polish mathematician, astronomer and lawyer. An astronomer and mathematician, Nicolaus Copernicus is a shining star of the Renaissance. The first has a duration of one day, the second of a year, and the third occurs also in a year progressively. If the center of gravity is no longer the earth, why then do things within the earth fall to its center? But in 1497 he was probably using it to assist in checking the new- and full-moon tables derived from the commonly used Alfonsine Tables and employed in Novara’s forecast for the year 1498. During his life, most people believed in the Geocentric model of the universe, with Earth at the centre and everything else rotating around it. Nicolaus Copernicus His Findings & Contribution (His Contributions & Ideas) icolaus Copernicus’ contribution to the astronomical history was large and it was a huge impact as well. Nicolaus Copernicus parents died when he was young and he was raised by a wealthy and prominent uncle. The most recognized and revolutionary contribution of Nicholas Copernicus is undoubtedly the theory of heliocentrism. At university he started calling himself the Latin form of his name, Nicolaus Copernicus. In De revolutionibus, book 4, chapter 27, Copernicus reported that he had seen the Moon eclipse “the brightest star in the eye of the Bull,” Alpha Tauri (Aldebaran). Copernicus was born in Torun, Poland into a middle class family. He was the son of a wealthy merchant. Nicolaus Copernicus – Mikołaj Kopernik! This representation of the heavens is usually called the heliocentric, or “Sun-centred,” system—derived from the Greek helios, meaning “Sun.” Copernicus’s theory had important consequences for later thinkers of the Scientific Revolution, including such major figures as Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, and Newton. The first such known observation occurred on March 9, 1497, at Bologna. J L E Dreyer, A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (1953). His works laid down the path for the astronomers of the future like Johannes Kepler and many others. The Bologna period (1496–1500) was short but significant. Copernicus became interested in astronomy and published an early description of his "heliocentric" model of the solar system in Commentariolus (1512). Because Copernicus was the first astronomer to really solidify a hypothesis about the heliocentric solar system, his contributions are considered the starting point of the Scientific Revolution.

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